2010

İstanbul etiketine sahip kayıtlar gösteriliyor. Tüm kayıtları göster
İstanbul etiketine sahip kayıtlar gösteriliyor. Tüm kayıtları göster

25 Mayıs 2010 Salı

L'EMPIRE OTTOMAN


Fatih Sultan Mehmet Han


L'EMPIRE OTTOMAN

Fatih Sultan Mehmet Han

Sultan Ottoman. En s’emparant d’Istanbul, il mit fin à l’Empire Byzantin et fit de l’Etat Ottoman un empire puissant.

Il naquit le 1er avril 1430 à Edirne et décéda le 3 mai 1481 à Gebze. Son père était Murad II et sa mère était Hatice Alime (ou Halime) Sultane, fille d’Isfendiyar Bey. Dans la plupart des sources occidentales, il est indiqué que sa mère était Milizza, fille du despote Serbe Vaccovichio et qu’il naquit en 1429. Il y a d’autres sources indiquant que sa mère était Huma Hatun et que sa date de naissance était 1432.

Sur l’ordre de son père, passionné de science, sa formation commença à partir de son enfance. Malgré son génie, il fut obligé de travailler avec Molla Gurani, connu pour son caractère dur, à cause de sa paresse et de sa désobéissance. Par la suite, les célèbres sages de l’époque comme Aksemseddin, Molla Yegan, Molla Ayas, Celebizade et Temcidoglu s’occupèrent de près de sa formation. Lorsqu’il eut 6 ans, il fut décidé de l’envoyer avec ses enseignants à Manisa pour qu’il s’éloigne de l’atmosphère impériale de la capitale Edirne lors de sa formation. A Manisa, il passa par une formation disciplinée et ce, parfois sous l’ombre du bâton de Molla Gurani. Il apprit le grec et le latin en plus des sciences traditionnelles, islamique et orientale.

Il resta à Manisa jusqu’en 1444. Face à la conquête de Sofia par les Hongrois, à la retraite de l’armée ottomane à Izladi Derneti, à la révolte des Albanais et à la marche vers Ankara des Karamanogullari et à la mort de son fils aîné Alaeddin en dernier lieu, Murad II prit une décision inattendue et set retira en 1444 à Manisa laissant son trône et la résolution de tous ces problèmes à son fils Mehmed.

Ce changement fut annoncé officiellement par l’envoi de lettres aux pays orientaux et occidentaux avec lesquels l’Etat Ottoman était en relation. Le fait qu’un enfant de 14 ans sans expérience montât sur le trône constituait une occasion en or pour les Hongrois, les Serbes et Byzance. Bien que l’accord d’Edirne Segedin, signé le 12 juin 1444 pour une durée de 10 ans fut en vigueur, les Hongrois et les Serbes optèrent pour faire vite. Face à ce danger, Murad II revint à Edirne en tant que commandant provisoire et à condition que son fils Mehmed restât sur le trône. Au mois de décembre de l’année courante, il se retira encore une fois à Manisa après avoir gagné la guerre de Varna. Il fut envoyé des fetihname (lettre anonçant la prise d’une ville) aux pays musulmans au nom de Mehmed II, qui ne participa pas à la guerre de Varna et qui resta à Edirne. Mais après cette victoire, la question du pouvoir resta un problème épineux entre le père et le fils, Murad II et Mehmet II.(Par exemple il existe différents documents montrant Murad II et Mehmet II comme étant empereurs en même temps). L’été de l’année 1446, Murad II, venu du côté de Rumali avec son armée privée, monta pour la deuxième fois sur le trône avec le soutien de Candarli Halil Pasha. Dans cette affaire, le rôle joué par les janissaires lors de leur révolte (affaire de Buçuktepe) ne fut pas négligeable. Quant à Mehmet II, il fut obligé de quitter Edirne sous la protestation des soldats, pour regagner Manisa avec ses conseillers et ses enseignants.

Lors de la deuxième période de son règne qui dura 5 ans, il décida d’apprendre quelque chose, cette fois-ci de sa propre volonté et non par la pression. Il s’occupa de métaphysique et de sciences positives et ce, afin de pouvoir résoudre le mystère de l’existence. En 1448 et en 1459, il participa aux expéditions vers l’Albanie à la demande de son père. Quinze jours après la mort de son père, le 18 février 1451, il vint à Edirne pour monter sur le trône.

Les Hongrois et les Serbes croyant que Mehmet II était maladroit, étant donné les événements de la première période de son règne, eurent un nouvel espoir. En Occident, lors qu’on discuta le dernier coup aux Ottomans, les commandants byzantins procédèrent à l’occupation jusqu’à Çorlu. Orhan, qui vivait à Istanbul en tant que prince impérial et réfugié politique, fut presenté au bon moment comme le vrai héritier du trône. Mais Byzance était loin de se mesurer aux Ottomans. Les bouleversements politiques et religieux menaçaient Byzance, qui était bloquée à Istanbul. La proposition d’alliance ne fut pas prise en considération en Europe, mais un cardinal fut envoyé à Istanbul pour trouver une solution au différend existant entre les églises de l’est et de l’ouest. Les Karamanoğulları, qui ne perdaient pas espoir sur l’Anatolie, occupèrent les région de Seydisehir et d’Aksehir. Quant à l’ouest, les Serbes prirent par la force certaines forteresses sous prétexte de couvrir les dépenses de la jeune femme de Murad II, Mara Sultane qui était revenue dans sa partie. Mehmet II observa tous ces développement en gardant son sang-froid. Dans le courant de 1451, des accords à court terme furent signés avec les Hongrois et les Vénitiens. Cette attitude donna courage aux pays souverains en Méditerranée. Une flotte jointe catholique assiégea le détroit de Çanakkale. En ce temps-là, Mehmed II était en train de se préparer pour une éxpédition vers l’Anatolie. Par la suite, il élargit ses cadres parmi les recrutés chrétiens pour briser la force des janissaires qu’il n’appréciait pas à cause de l’affaire de Buçuktepe. Il se rendit en Anatolie en 1452, après avoir ordonné à Candarlı Halil Pasha la construction de la forteresse de Rumeli, du côté occidental du Bosphore.

Memhed II vainquit Karamanoğlu Ibrahim Bey à un moment inattendu, rentra à Edirne, se rendit par la suite à l’endroit où il y avait des travaux de construction et en ordonna la fin de la construction le plus tôt possible, ce qui fut jugé incroyable par Byzance. Au même moment, il révéla son intention de conquérir Istanbul en même temps qu’il ordonna l’organisation d’incursions aux despotes byzantins dans la péninsule de Péloponèse (Mora) à Turhan Bey. Il suggéra ne pas vouloir être célèbre mais vouloir tout simplement unir son pays qui semblait être divisé en deux. En conquérant Istanbul, il voulait assurer l’intégration entre Rumeli, où il y avait des incurseurs et des derviches, et l’Anatolie où étaient souverains les savants et les sages, dont le centre se trouvait à Bursa.

Mehmed II montra sa détermination à agir sans perdre de temps face à Byzance, en détruisant les champs situés en dehors des remparts d’Istanbul. Par contre Byzance, optant pour garder le silence, maçonna toutes les portes s’ouvrant en direction d’Edirne. Mehmet II, s’approchant des remparts en aôut 1452, manifesta sa puissance. A son retour à Edirne, il convoqua le conseil de guerre et prit la décision de conquérir Istanbul le plus tôt possible malgé l’opposition de Halil Pasha et de son entourrage. Chargeant ses petites unités de prendre les petites fortification byzantines, peu importantes, les responsables envoyés par Mehmed II en Anatolie, en expliquant et interprétant les exhortations du Prophète louant le commandant qui allait conquérir Istanbul, s’assurèrent la participation de volontaires. La flotte qui appareilla de Gallipoli procéda à des manoeuvres en mer de Marmara. Mehmet II passé l’hiver de 1452/1453 en faisant des plans et des travaux techniques. Il prépara des projets de canon sans précédent avec les maîtres Muslihiddin et Urban. Il les envoya, au moment où, à Byzance, des personnes nobles et compétentes comme le premier ministre Notares optaient pour “voir les turbans ottomans à la place des chapeaux latins”. Aux efforts déployés par l’empereur Konstantinos Dragases XI, participèrent symboliquement les Génois, les Vénitiens, les Catalans, les Provençaux, en envoyant quelques navires et unités. Les latins d’origine, qui s’étaient installés à Istanbul et qui y faisaient du commerce, étaient obligés de défendre la ville.

Mehmed II, après avoir achevé ses plans préparés minutieusement, quitta Edirne le 23 mars 1453. L’armée ottomane, dont l’expérience guerrière était vieille de 150 ans, était, pour la première fois de l’histoire, sur le point de faire une expédition planifiée à l’avance avec une cible déterminée aussi à l’avance. Mehmed II, qui avait établi son camp le 5 mai en face de remparts du côté de Topkapi, commença le siège le lendemain en ordonnant le premier tir. Les résultats du siège de 53 jours, dont les échos dans l’histoire occupent une place importante, ne changèrent rien, malgré la défense de

30 000 soldats et des équipement ont été utilisés de façon impressionnante. Vers la fin du siège, Konstantinos XI, qui avait fait pénétrer toutes ses réserves sur les petits champs de bataille par les brèches ouvertes dans les remparts, opta pour la mort en combattant aux côtés de ses soldats, après avoir participé à la messe organisée dans la nuit du 28 mai à Sainte-Sophie. Le mardi 29 mai, les soldats turcs, entrant par les brèches ouvertes dans les remparts, rejoignirent les autres forces venant du côté de la mer à Aksaray et la capitale de Byzance fut soumise à Mehmed II.

Mehmed II, auquel on donna le titre de “conquérant”, entra dans la ville accompagné d’un grand régiment. Dans le premier firman qu’il publia, il grâcia tous les survivants et leur rendit la liberté de foi et de commerce. Il prit des mesures sévères pour la protection des patrimoines culturels de la ville. Il voulut créer une atmosphère de confiance d’une métropole dans la ville, et pour y parvenir, il établit de bonnes relations amicales avec les leaders spirituels des Chrétiens et des Juifs. Il ordonna à Zaganos Pasha de s’emparer de Galata qui était une colonie génoise. Ce faisant, il mit fin à la division, qui avait duré des siècles, des deux côtés de la Corne d’Or et demanda l’établissement d’un nouveau quartier de commerce.

Avec la conquête d’Istanbul, Mehmed II assimila ceux qui n’avaient pas confiance en lui. En Occident, il n’existait ni force ni alliance pouvant constituer une menace. En prenant ceci en compte, il signa des accords commerciaux avec les Génois et les Vénitiens en 1454. Son objectif était de garantir ses plans pour la conquête des rives du Danube, et de mettre définitivement fin au différend avec la Serbie qui durait depuis un siècle. En 1454 et 1455, il organisa deux différentes expéditions et prit le sud de la Serbie. Le despote serbe se soumit aux Ottomans à condition de payer des impôts et d’annuler sa dépendance aux Hongrois. En 1456, il prit des îles importantes en mer égéenne comme Tasoz, Imroz, Semendre et Limni arguant la sécurité des rives. Il participa lui-même à l’expédition vers Belgrade. Mais le fait que la flotte envoyée à Danube ne s’était pas conclu par un succès et la défaite des unités forcèrent Mehmed II à se retirer.

En 1457, il s’occupa des despotes byzantins. Dénonçant l’accord qu’il avait signé avec les Vénitiens, il organisa une expédition vers la péninsule de Péloponèse et prit Patras et Korintose et les annexant à Teselya, il donna la région à Akıncı Turhan Bey. L’expédition de Péloponèse dura jusqu’à la fin de 1458. Au même moment le pape Callistus III avait eu l’objectif de provoquer certains beys musulmans et Akkoyunlu Uzun Hasan Bey contre les Ottomans et lorsqu’il décéda, son remplaçant Pius II commença à regrouper les pays chrétiens autour d’un nouvel objectif. Mehmed II, qui ne prit pas en considération ses développements, envoya son vizir d’origine serbe Mahmut Pasha en 1458 en Serbie. Lorsqu’il apprit que Resava, Kuruca et Osirovis avaient été conquis, il se rendit dans la région pour mettre fin au royaume serbe en 1459.

En 1460, il organisa une deuxième expédition vers la péninsule de Péloponèse. Le despote Demetrios se livra. Quant à son frère Thomas, il vendit le symbole de l’Empire Byzantin au prince russe Ivan III et s’enfuit vers l’Italie. Mehmed II, qui nomma Zaganos Pasha gouverneur du Péloponèse, se rendit à Edirne et par la suite à Bursa et ordonna au Bey de Crimée de s’emparer de Kefe pour contrôler la Mer Noire ainsi que le Bosphore et pour enfin mettre fin au commerce des esclaves par les Génois. Il jugea insuffisant le fait que les Génois et l’Etat de Pontos à Trabzon payaient uniquement des impôts et il organisa une expédition inattendue en 1460 et prit Amasra qui était une importante base génoise sur la Mer Noire. Par la suite il prit Sinop en 1461 des Isfendiyaroğulları et de Trabzon qui était aux mains de Pontos. Grâce à la prise de ces villes, les rives anatoliennes de la Mer Noire furent annexées à l’Empire Ottoman. Les autochtones furent forcés d’immigrer vers Istanbul et la ville, vidée, fut repeuplée par les paysans turcs.
En 1462, Mehmed II organisa une expédition vers la Valachie. Vlad III, voïvode de Valachie, connu par le fait qu’il s’était emparé des Turcs qu’il avait capturés, voulu tuer Mehmed II un soir en organisant un assaut mais n’ayant pas pu parvenir à ses fins, il dut se retirer à Erdel. Radul promit d’être fidèle à l’Empire Ottoman, après avoir été nommé gouverneur de Valachie. Mehmet le Conquérant avança sur la Bosnie. Il passa l’hiver dans cette région et acheva la conquête de Bosnie au printemps de l’année 1463, par la suite il exécuta le roi Stefan. Il put étouffer provisoirement la révolte qui continuait depuis des années en Albanie et soumit Iskender Bey.

La prise de Lesbos (Midilli) la même année provoqua une guerre avec les Vénitiens, qui allait durer des années. La même année, en 1463, Mahmud Pasha put réprimer la révolte à Péloponèse. Il renvoya la plupart des Grecs à Istanbul. Quant à Mehmed II, il reprit la plupart des terres perdues le long de la frontière hongroise. Il acheva son expédition vers la Hérzegovine en 1465 et annexa cette région à ses territoires. Il organisa sa deuxième expédition vers l’Albanie en 1466, et retourna à Edirne après avoir pris les villes importantes.

Les Génois, qui avaient perdu leur colonie dans la Mer Noire, se mirent accord avec Haci Giray, en prétextant que les Ottomans pourraient attaquer la Crimée, la Lituanie et la Pologne et prirent part à cette alliance. Mais Mengli Giray 1er , qui était le Han de Crimée en 1466, opta pour se rapprocher des Ottomans. Un autre front fut formé par les tentatives entreprises par Karamanoglu Ibrahim Bey, qui accusa Mehmed II de protéger les Chrétiens. Il essaya d’obtenir le soutien du sultan des Mamelouks et celui du calife des Abbassides en Egypte, mais il mourut sans parvenir à ses fins. Dans la lutte entre ses fils Ishak et Pir Ahmed pour le pouvoir, Mehmed II prit partie pour Pir Ahmed et Ishak dut se rapprocher d’Uzun Hasan, souverain des Akkoyunlu, ce qui provoqua une lutte entre les deux souverains turcs. Mehmed II, après avoir terminé sa troisième expéditon contre l’Albanie, partit en Anatolie contre le front établi par Les Karamanogullari, les Akkoyunlu et les Mamelouk et prit Konya. Par la suite il aida les Dulkadiroğulları qui étaient en guerre contre les Mamelouk.

Par ailleurs, en 1461, le fait qu’Uzun Hasan Bey, ayant envoyé des soldats dans l’état de Pontos lorsqu’il se rendit à Trabzon et mis ses forces face à celles des Ottomans à Yassi Cimen, ait dissous l’Etat Karakoyunlu et établi des relations étroites avec les Mamelouk, nécessitait indispensablement le réglement de comptes à son égard. Les efforts diplomatiques entre les palais ottoman, Akkoyunlu et Mamelouk ne portèrent pas leurs fruits, et, au contraire, rendirent les relations plus tendues. Mehmed II, qui ne jugea pas convenable de descendre vers le sud, rentra à Istanbul, en laissant le commandement et l’administration de la province de Karaman, dont le centre était Konya, à son fils Mustafa, en 1468. Pir Ahmed Bey, profitant de cette occasion assiégea Konya en 1469 et élargit son occupation en direction d’Eregli et d’Aksaray. Quant à Karamanoglu, Kasim Bey força les portes d’Ankara avec ses unités en 1470. Une unité ottomane fut vaincue par les volontaires de Karaman aux environs de Silifke. Gedik Pasha, s’étant rendu sur le champ de bataille, asséna le dernier et coup le plus lourd aux Karamanogullari en 1471. Uzun Hasan Bey, qui tenta de sauver cet ancien beylicat anatolien, fit piller Tokat et les régiments qu’il envoya dans les environs de Konya, infligèrent une défaite aux forces du prince impérial Mustafa.

Les guerres navales et terrestres avec les Vénitiens, qui duraient depuis un certain temps, donnèrent certains résultats positifs en faveur des Ottomans en 1470. La même année, l’île d’Egribos fut prise, mais, par contre, les flottes Vénitiennes assiégèrent Antalya et Izmir et pillèrent les villes riveraines. Ils menacèrent même Istanbul et les détroits. En cette période difficile, Uzun Hasan menait une politique d’élargissement. Mehmed II, qui avait constaté qu’il était impossible de reporter la guerre avec les Akkoyunlular, essaya d’empêcher les relations entre les Akkoyunlu et les Vénitiens en envoyant ses unités à Sivas; au printemps de l’année 1473, il organisa une grande expédition. Uzun Hazan, qui avait préparé des pièges sur les passages d’accès difficile, infligea de lourdes pertes aux unités ottomanes et fit circuler la rumeur comme quoi Mehmed II était mort vaincu. Mais la guerre de Otlukbeli, faite le 11 aôut 1473, fut une nouvelle victoire pour Mehmed II, qui avança et prit Sebinkarahisar. Acceptant la proposition de paix d’Uzun Hasan, il repartit pour Istanbul.
Avec l’apaisement de la tension en Orient, il s’occupa des problèmes de Karamanogullari, de Crimée et de la Mer Noire et des guerres avec les Vénitiens. Il chargea pour la deuxième fois Gedik Ahmet Pasha de résoudre le problème avec Karaman. Les forces navales et terrestres ottomanes, envoyées sur les rives méditerranéennes, réussirent à éloigner les Vénitiens des rives. Gedik Ahmet Pasha

s’empara des forteresses d’Ermenak, de Mennan et de Silifkez. Pir Ahmed Bey, qui s’était enfui, mourut dans les montagnes. Gedik Ahmet Pasha, devenu célèbre grâce à ses victoires, partit en 1475 sur la Crimée. Il prit Kefe, les forteresses d’Azak et de Menkup et les rives de Crimée. Il sauva Mengli Giray 1er, qui était prisonnier des Génois. Après un certain temps, il attaqua la Russie sans avoir eu l’autorisation des Ottomans, et il fut rappelé et emprisonné à Istanbul. En 1477, la Crimée fut annexée, quant à l’expédition de Sogdak, elle dura jusqu’en 1479. Les rives circasiennes et de Taman furent envahies. Mehmed II, qui avait pu trouver l’occasion de s’occuper de près des problèmes occidentaux, avança encore une fois en 1474 sur les Génois qui contrôlaient certaines villes albanaises importantes. Les forces ottomanes attaquèrent du côté nord de l’Albanie et du côté de la péninsule de Péloponèse en même temps et elles se rapprochèrent des Vénitiens. Mehmed II, qui avait organisé une expédition en 1478,

s’empara des forteresses d’Iskodra et de Kruya (Akhisar) et les Vénitiens, convaincus de ne pas pouvoir tirer profit de cette guerre qui dura 16 ans, demandèrent la paix. L’accord entre les Ottomans et les Vénitiens fut signé le 25 janvier 1479. Les Vénitiens se retirèrent des endroits qu’ils contrôlaient, plus particulièrement d’Iskodra et les Ottomans laissèrent les ports qu’ils avaient pris au Péloponèse. Cet accord permettait aux navires vénitiens de faire du commerce sur les eaux territoriales de l’Empire Ottoman comme dans les ports appartenant aux ottomans contre un tribut de l’ordre de 10000 ors par an. Le fait de rendre les Vénitiens hors danger considérés comme étant les principaux rivaux en Méditerranée offrit une autre et nouvelle occasion à Mehmed II pour la réalisation de ses projets. En 1479, il déclara la guerre à Milan et à Naples et envoya Gedik Ahmed Pasha avec une grande flotte en Méditerranée. Il prit facilement les îles d’Aya Mavra, de Kefalonya et de Zanta. En 1480, Nesih Pasha, qui avait assiégé l’île de Rhodes avec une importante flotte, dut se retirer avec une lourde perte, mais en à ce moment-là, Gedik Ahmed Pasha débarqua dans le port de Puglia (Pulya) et il prit Otronto, situé au sud de l’Italie, le 11 aôut 1480. Cet évenement eut un grand écho en Europe. Lorsqu’on parlait de la chute de Rome, les dirigeants religieux du Vatican se mettaient à préparer les prétextes d’une grande croisade. Mais Gedik Ahmed Pasha, qui ne choisit pas d’avancer, attendit les forces supplémentaires envoyées de Rumeli.

Mehmed II, qui avait terminé les préparations pour sa deuxième expédition vers l’Orient au printemps de l’année 1481, se rendit à Gebze en passant par Istanbul et s’occupa de la préparation de l’armée. Avant de pouvoir entamer cette expédition, qui semblait être organisée vers l’Egypte, il tomba malade dans son camp établi à Hünkar (Sultan) Cayiri à Gebze. Il mourut, soit des suites de la maladie de la goutte dont il souffrait depuis longtemps, soit d’avoir été empoisonné. Il existe différentes hypothèses sur sa mort, selon lesquelles il aurait été tué par les hommes de son fils aîné, Bayezid, parce qu’il voulait laisser son trône à son fils cadet Cem, ou par les agents des Etats Catholiques qui voulaient interrompre son expédition vers l’Italie.

Son cadavre, après avoir été embaumé, fut transporté à Istanbul par Karamani Mehmed Pasha et fut protégé dans le palais de Topkapı durant 20 jours. Il fut mis le 21 mai 1481 dans le tombeau se trouvant dans le complexe de Fatih, le lendemain de l’arrivée au pouvoir de Bayezid II.

Mehmed II, connu sous le nom de “conquérant”, demanda la critique des oeuvres de Gazzali et de Ibn Rusd et la préparation de recueils originaux y afférent. La littérature ottomane, qui ne put pas donner de fruits considérables jusqu’à son époque, connut une période brillante grâce à son encouragement et à sa contribution au 15ème siècle. Le fait qu’il ait nommé vizirs Sinan Pasha, qui était un maître de la prose et Ahmed Pasha qui était un poète, ainsi que ses relations personnelles amicales avec eux, montrent l’importance qu’il accorda aux artistes. Mehmed II écrivit des poèmes utilisant le surnom d’ “Avni” et devint le premier sultan qui organisait des divans. Il invita Bellini, peintre italien, à Istanbul en 1479 et décora son palais de ses portraits et d’autres tableaux. Il établit également des relations avec les artistes orientaux, il correspondit avec Ali Sir Nevai et invita le mathématicien Ali Kusçi à Istanbul. S’occupant de la technologie de guerre, il réalisa des travaux dans les domaines de dessins de projets architecturaux ou de canons cannelés. Il consulta plusieurs oeuvres en arabe, en latin ou en grec se trouvant dans sa bibliothèque personnelle à Istanbul. Le partiarche orthodoxe Gennadios écrivit un recueil sur le christianisme pour lui offrir.

Il demanda à son dernier vizir, Karamani Mehmed Pasha, de préparer les “codes”, lui donnant des instructions sur l’administration et le jugement. Il accorda une importance à l’intégrité et à la balance démographique de son pays et essaya de faire des Turcs les éléments souverains dans tous les domains. Par contre, il prévoya l’installation, sur les territoires en dehors des remparts d’Istanbul, de peuplades venant de toutes les nations et de toutes religions, il travailla également à la restauration de la ville d’Istanbul détruite, en lui donnant un nouvel aspect. Le nombre des monuments construits pendant son époque et figurant parmi les plus grandes oeuvres de l’art architectural ottoman s’élève à 750. Il fit construire, en 1470, le complexe de Fatih en son nom. Dans les institutions consacrées à la formation, il accorda une importance aux sciences classiques islamiques et aux sciences positives. Les riches fondations pour les écoles religieuses, les asiles, les maisons de santé et les bibliothèques ne furent pas négligées.

Il transforma la Mer Noire en mer intérieure, il annexa la Crimée, il brisa la force de l’Etat Akkoyunlu, il prépara la conquête de la Hongrie en organisant des expédition sans cesse, il s’empara de toutes les îles dans la Mer Egée à l’exception de Rhodes, il détruisit les principautés de Valachie et de Bogdan, les royaumes serbe et bosniaque, les despotes du Péloponèse, l’Etat de Pontos à Trabzon, les bases génoise et vénitienne, les beylicats de Karaman et d’Isfendiyar et transforma l’Etat Ottoman en un empire puissant pesant dans la politique mondiale.

24 Mayıs 2010 Pazartesi

Turkey on the World Heritage List

Turkey on the World Heritage List


Turkey has signed the World Heritage Convention in 1983 and through the work carried out under the responsibility of the General Directorate for Cultural Heritage and Museums, 9 properties were inscribed on the World heritage List. Among these properties, Historical Areas of İstanbul, City of Safranbolu, Hattusha (Bogazkoy)- Hittite Capital, Nemrut Mountain, Xanthos-Lethoon, Great Mosque and Hospital of Divrigi and Archeological Site of Troy are listed as cultural, while Pamukkale-Hierapolis and Göreme National Park-Rock Sites of Cappadocia are listed both as cultural and natural heritage.

In Turkey many civilizations were settled beginning from the earliest ages of humanity, signs of which are spread all around the country. The spectacular examples of the natural wonders support this rich cultural heritage.

Natural and Cultural Properties on the World Heritage List in Turkey

Historic Areas of Istanbul
Date of Inscription : 6.12.1985
Ref : 356
Criteria : Cultural

Strategically located on the Peninsula between the Balkans and Anatolia, the Black Sea and the Mediterranean, Istanbul has been associated with the major political, religious and artistic events for more than 2000 years. The cultural heritage of Istanbul is shaped by its location as a strategic entrance to Anatolia, central Asia and the Middle East on the on hand, and to Europe on the other. The city of Istanbul, which was built at the crossroads of the two continents, was the capital of three great empires: The East Roman, The Byzantine and the Ottoman. During these periods emperors and sultans, drawing upon the wealth of their realms, embellished the city with palaces, temples, churches and mosques, other public buildings and structures.

“The Historic Areas of Istanbul”, inscribed in the World Heritage List in 1985, are composed of four main areas: The Archaeological Park, Süleymaniye Mosque and its associated Conservation Area, Zeyrek Mosque and its associated Conservation Area, Land Walls of Istanbul.

World Heritage Committee examined state of the conservation of Historic Areas of Istanbul at its 27th, 28th, 29th, 30th, 31st and 32nd sessions and requested Turkish authorities to submit a progressive report concerning the state of the conservation of the site. Ministry prepared and submitted 5 progressive reports on the state of the conservation of the site in 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007 and 2008. Final decision will be taken in 2009.

Göreme National Park and Cappodocia
Date of Inscription :6.12.1985
Ref. : 357
Criteria : Natural / Cultural

In a spectacular landscape, entirely sculpted by erosion, the Göreme valley and its surroundings contain rock-hewn sanctuaries that provide unique evidence of Byzantine art in the post-Iconoclastic period. Dwellings, troglodyte villages and underground towns – the remains of a traditional human habitat dating back to the 4th century – can also be seen there. It contains unique natural features and displays a harmonious of natural and cultural landscape elements

Great Mosque and Hospital of Divrigi
Dünya Miras Listesine Alınma Tarihi : 6.12.1985
Liste Sıra No : 358
Criteria : Cultural

The earliest settlement in Divrigi and its environs goes back to the Hittite Period. In 1228-29 Ahmet Shah and his wife Turan Melek founded a mosque, with its adjoining hospital, at Divrigi during the Mengucekogullari Period. The mosque has a single prayer room and is crowned by two cupolas. The highly sophisticated technique of vault construction, and a creative, exuberant type of decorative sculpture - particularly on the three doorways, in contrast to the unadorned walls of the interior - are the unique features of this masterpiece of Islamic architecture.

Hattusha (Bogazkoy)-The Hittite Capital
Date of Inscription : 28.11.1986
Ref. : 377
Criteria : Cultural

The archaeological site of Hattusha, former capital of the Hittite Empire, is notable for its urban organization, the types of construction that have been preserved (temples, royal residences, fortifications), the rich ornamentation of the Lions' Gate and the Royal Gate, and the ensemble of rock art at Yazilikaya. The city enjoyed considerable influence in Anatolia and northern Syria in the 2nd millennium B.C.

Nemrut Mountain
Date of Inscription : 11.12.1987
Ref : 448
Criteria : Cultural

The mausoleum of Antiochus I, who reigned over Commagene, a kingdom founded north of Syria and the Euphrates after the breakup of Alexander's empire, is one of the most ambitious constructions of the Hellenistic period. The syncretism of its pantheon, and the lineage of its kings, which can be traced back through two sets of legends, Greek and Persian, is evidence of the dual origin of this kingdom's culture.

XANTHOS - LETOON
Date of Inscription : 9.12.1988
Ref : 484
Criteria : Kültürel

This site, which was the capital of Lycia, illustrates the blending of Lycian traditions and Hellenic influence, especially in its funerary art. The epigraphic inscriptions are crucial for our understanding of the history of the Lycian people and their Indo-European language.

Pamukkale- Hiearapolis
Date of Inscription : 9.12.1988
Ref : 485
Criteria : Natural / Cultural

Deriving from springs in a cliff almost 200 m high overlooking the plain, calcite-laden waters have created at Pamukkale (Cotton Palace) an unreal landscape, made up of mineral forests, petrified waterfalls and a series of terraced basins. At the end of the 2nd century B.C. the dynasty of the Attalids, the kings of Pergamon, established the thermal spa of Hierapolis. The ruins of the baths, temples and other Greek monuments can be seen at the site.

World Heritage Committee requested state party to submit a report concerning the state of the conservation of the site, construction of thermal water distribution network and management plan. A detailed report on the requested issues by the Committee was prepared and submitted by the Ministry in 2006.

City of Safranbolu
Date of Inscription: 17.12.1994
Ref: 614
Criteria : Cultural

From the 13th century to the advent of the railway in the early 20th century, Safranbolu was an important caravan station on the main East–West trade route. Surviving buildings from this early period include the Old Mosque, Old Bath and Süleyman Pasha Medrese, all built in 1322. It is a typical Ottoman city that has survived to the present day. The architectural forms of the buildings and the streets are illustrative of their period.

Archeological Site of Troy
Date of Inscription: 05.12.1998
Ref: 849
Criteria : Cultural
Troy, with its 3,000 years of history, is one of the most famous archaeological sites in the world. The first excavations at the site were undertaken by the famous archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann in 1870. In scientific terms, its extensive remains are the most significant demonstration of the first contact between the civilizations of Anatolia and the Mediterranean world. Moreover, the siege of Troy by Spartan and Achaean warriors from Greece in the 13th or 12th century B.C., immortalized by Homer in the Iliad, has inspired great creative artists throughout the world ever since.

The archaeological site of Troy is of immense significance in the understanding of the development of European civilization at a critical stage in its early development. It is, moreover, of exceptional cultural importance because of the profound influence of Homer’s Iliad on the creative arts over more than two millennia.

In Accordance with the criteria described in the Operational Guidelines for Implementation of World Heritage Convention 18 properties are listed in our new tentative list approved by the World Heritage Committee in 2000.

Relationships between world cultures, spirituality of sites, nomadism and migration, routes for people and goods, different modes of occupation of land, cultural landscapes, traditional life styles and settlements are all taken into account while preparing the tentative list.

In our tentative list, there are 2 mixed sites and 16 cultural sites. These sites are as follows:
- Edirne Selimiye Mosque
- Bursa and Cumalikizik Early Ottoman urban and rural settlements
- Konya-Acapital of Seljuk Civilization
- Alanya
- Seljuk Caravanseraias on the Route from Denizli to Dogubeyazit Ephesus
- Ishak Pashe Palace
- Harran and Sanli Urfa
- The Citadel and the Walls of Diyarbakir
- The Tombstones of Ahlat the Urartian and Ottoman citadel
- Sümela Monastery (The Monastery of Virgin Mary)
- Alahan Monastery
- St. Nicholas Church
- St. Paul Church, St. Paul’s Well and surrounding historic quarters
- Kekova
- Güllük Mountain-Termessos National Park
- Ephesus
- Karain Cave
- Mardin Cultural Landscape

Edirne Selimiye Mosque
Location: Marmara Region
Coordinates: 260 34’ East, 410 41’ North
Criteria : a) i, ii, iii, iv, Cultural

Selimiye Mosque, the so called masterpiece of Mimar Sinan, has been constructed between 1569-1575. The mosque, with its technical superiority, the dimensions and aesthetic values, is one of the most magnificent works of its own era as well as the following eras.

The complex built in the historic centre of Edirne comprises two madrasas, a primary school and a covered bazaar besides this magnificent mosque.

Bursa and Cumalikizik Early Ottoman urban and rural settlements
Location : Marmara Region
Coordiantes : 290 04’ East, 400 12’ North
Criteria : a) i, iii, iv, Cultural

Bursa was founded in 200 BC by King Prusia of Bitinia and was ruled by the Roman and Byzantium Empires for centuries. The main importance of the city is that it became the first political centre of the Ottomans.

There are 127 mosques, 45 tombs, 34 madrasas, 25 inns, 37 public bath houses, 14 public kitchens and dervish lodges constructed during the first 6 sultans of Ottomans.

Cumalikizik located on the northern skirts of Uludag was established to provide logistic support just before the conquer of Bursa. It has preserved not only its historical texture but the traditional lifestyle up to this date as well.

Konya-Acapital of Seljuk Civilization
Location : Central Anatolia Region
Coordinates : 320 30’ East, 370 52’ North
Criteria : a) i, ii, iv, Cultural

Konya a cradle of many civilizations became a center of culture and politics during the period of Seljuks. During the 12 th and 13 th centuries the city acted as the capital of Seljuks and many public buildings, examples of Seljukian stone carving were built at that time.

Seljuks created a unique artistic world with cultural links reaching out from the Anatolian heartland to central Asia, the Middle East and the shores of the Mediterrannean and Konya is the significant example of this world.

The outer fortress of Konya and the Alaaddin Mosque, the Sirçali Madrasa, many small mosques and tombs are examples of Seljukian architectural elements of Konya.

Alanya
Location :Mediterranean Region
Coordinates : 310 59’ East, 360 32’ North
Criteria : a) iii, iv, Cultural

The peninsula of Alanya surrounded by city walls was named "Karakesion" during the Hellenistic period went under the hegomany of Romans and Byzantines, followed by the Seljuks. Inside the Alanya castle there exist a Seljuk cistern, a Byzantine church, the Keykubat Sultan Palace and the ruins of a Seljuk bath, completed with the traditional urban texture.

The castle extends down to the sea and encloses a medieval dockyard that is guarded by a 33 meter high octagonal tower of red stone and brick.

Selcuk Caravanseraias on the Route from Denizli to Dogubeyazit Ephesus
Location : The route cuts Anatolia from West to East.
Criteria : a) ii, iii, iv, Cultural

The caravanserais, a new architectural type with social function developed in central Asia by the Karakhanids and Ghaznavids passed into Anatolian Turkish architecture. The institution of caravanserais has its most variations in Seljuk Anatolia, using the forms of Anatolian stone architecture.

These buildings offering travellers in mountain and desert all the possibilities and comforts of civilization of the period each effectively a social fondation subject to an organized and continuous state programme, appear to present a typical characteristic of Turkish society, Denizli-Dogubeyazlt Route consists of about 40 Hans about which 10 are very well preserved.

Significant Hans and Caravanserias located on the proposed route:
Akhan
Pinarbasi Han
Egridir Han
Pınarpazarı Hanı
Kantarcı Han
Obruk Han
Oklu Han
Sultan Han (2)
Akhan
Ağzıkarahan
Sünnetli Han
Sikre Han
Ertokuş Han
Kireli Han
Elikesik Han
Kavak Han
Kuruçeşme Han
Altınapa Han
Sadettin Han
Zincirli Han
Akbaş Han
Öresin Han
Han Camisi
Sultan Han
Şahruk Köprüsü Han
Lala Kervansarayı
Gedik Han
Latif Han
Mugar Han
Cibci Han
Pervane Han
Kargı Han
Köprüköyü Hanı
Mamahatun Kervansarayı
Hacı Bekir Han

Ishak Pashe Palace
Location: Eastern Anatolia Region
Coordinates : 440 08’ East, 390 31’ North
Criteria : a) i, iii, iv, Cultural

Ishak Pasha Palace on the Silk Route near the Iranian frontier, is situated on a high and vast platform of strategic importance on an area of 7600 meter square.

It is not at all in the Ottoman tradition but is rather a mixture of Anatolian, Iranian and North Mesopotamian architectural tradition.

The traditional model used in the construction of the Royal Palaces in the capital cities like Bursa, Edirne and Istanbul was taken as an example in the design of Ishak Pasha Palace. The western influence in Ottoman architecture during the post-classical period can be observed is Ishak Pasha Palace.


Harran and Şanliurfa
Location : Southern East Anatolia Region
Criteria : a) i, ii, iii, iv, Cultural

Sanliurfa known as the city of prophets has a very rich and for reaching background, due to its location in the great fertile plain of upper Mesopotamia Sanliurfa was praised as the city of prophets Hiob, Jethro and St. George besides Abraham who were said to have lived here.

This Holy city is full of historic religious, public and civil architectural buildings. All are the best examples of tradition and art stone.

The old city of Harran is situated in a land through which have run trade routes from Iskenderun to Antakya (ancient Antioch) and to Kargam~s. The city is mentioned in the Holy bible and in the documents founded at Mari (a city on the Northern Syria) It is important not only for hosting the early civilizations but it is the place where the first Islamic University is founded. The traditional civil architecture, mudbrick houses with conic roofs, are unique.

The Citadel and TheWalls Of Diyarbakir
Location : Southeast Anatolia Region
Coordinates : 400 14’ East, 370 55’ North
Criteria : a) i, iii, v, Cultural

The citadel and the walls of Diyarbakir is situated 100 m. above the valley of River Tigris.

Diyarbakir still carries e mediavel atmosphere with its walls encircling the city. Although there were Roman and probably earlier walls here, the present walls date back to early Byzantine times.

Diyarbakır Citadel and Walls, besides being the unique example with the inscriptions of written documents of Anatolian History, they also carry an outstanding universal value by keeping the archaeological features and atmosphere of various historical periods till today.

There are sixteen keeps and five gates, each of which deserves seeig along with their inscriptions and reliefs.

The black basalt walls are perfect examples of the military architecture of the Middle Ages. The walls today are 10-12 m high and 3-5 m thick.

The Tombstones of Ahlat the Urartian and Ottoman citadel
Location : Eastern Anatolia Region
Coordinates : 420 30’ East, 380 45’ North
Criteria : a) i, iii, Cultural

Though the history of the city dates back to 900 BC, its famous for her tombstones dating to 12 th-15th centuties AD. It has an important place in the Islamic world in their variation within Anatolian tomb architecture in dimension and design.

Tombstones in Ahlat, some of the most outstanding tombstones and mausoleums of the early Turkish period in Anatolia are to be seen in Ahlat. These works are not only important sources of information on the technical and decorative repertoire of the period, but also act as historical sources for important masons and craftman, whose names appear in inscriptions there.

Sumela Monastery
Location : Blacksea Region
Coordinates : 390 02’ East, 400 48’ North
Criteria : a) i, iii, iv, Cultural

Sumela is a monastic complex built into the rock cliffs of the Altmdere Valley. It is construction began in 385 AD; and continued until the 19 th century. Barnabas, a monk from Athens and his nephew Sophronios built the section which comprised the first two rooms of the monastry in rocks.

Alahan Monastery
Location: Mediterranean Region
Coordinates : 320 31’ East, 370 52’ North
Criteria : a) i, iii, iv, Cultural

The monastery and its adjoining structures lie at a distance of one hour's walk from the small village of Alahan. The group of buildings consists of small cells for the monks placed in theree churches and in the rocks linked by a straight line of columns. The building complex streches along the side of the mountain and covers an area of 30x200 m's.

The existing cultural remains demonstrate that the complex was surrounded by small houses. It is quite possible that the monastery official, and monks lived in these houses.

St. Nicholas Church
Location: Mediterranean Region
Coordinates: 360 7.5’ East, 290 58’ North
Criteria : a) iii, iv, Cultural

St.Nicholas church is in ancient Myria a large city in the Lykian Group developed tremendously in the 2nd century AD. The church is made for the Bishop of this Mediterranean city during the 4th century AD.

Myra was an intersection of trading routes in antique times, enabling the encounters of different cultures, both from the East and West, which acquired parts of the St. Nicholas cult

The relations with the Imperial capital, Constantinople, as well as many other cities, rendered the site a cosmopolitan centre of influence, both in terms of urban life and the development of Christianity. The great scale and wealth of St. Nicholas Church is a direct derivative of the role of Myra as a capital, which affected its whole urban fabric.

St. Paul Church, St. Paul’s Well and surrounding historic quarters
Location: Mediterranean Region
Criteria : a) ii, iii, iv, Cultural
Tarsus is the birth place of St.Paul, situated on the edge of the fertile Çukurova plain in the city full of cedar groves city is the meeting place of legendary lovers Antony and Cleopatra. There is the commerative Cleopatra gate, to reach St.Paul's well and the St.Paul Church, the old vernacular style streets of the city to be followed.

Kekova
Location : Mediterranean Region
Coordinates : 290 53’ East, 360 13’ North
Criteria : a) i, iii, Natural a) ii, iii, Cultural

Kekova is the name of a region of fascinating islands, bays and ancient cities. Kekova has a rarely seen attraction, a long the shore of the Island a sunken city is observed. The geological movements of the Island caused the city on the Island to be submerged, creating a strange scene with half of the city under water and half above. Teimiussa, Simena are the main Lycian settlements in the area.

Kekova is the only area where the flying fish can be watched in this region.

Beyond its cultural features, Kekova shows very significant geological formations, undulated coastal line, hydro biological features and scenic beauty of the area form an outstanding quality. It is a remarkable example of cultural continuity, and a living cultural assent as well.

Güllük Mountain Termessos National Park
Location : Mediterranean Region
Coordinates : 300 30’ East, 370 00’ North
Criteria : a) ii, iii, v, Cultural a) ii, iii, iv, Natural

Gulluk Dagi National Park is located within the province of Antalya in a valley hidden between mountains.

There is the ancient fortified city of Termessos rising 1050 m above the sea level.

The most significant remains of the site are the city walls, Towers, King's Road, Hadrian's Gate, Gymnasium, Agora, Theatre, Odeon, Richly, Decorated Tombs, cisterns and drainage system.

Other features of the Natural Park are the step rocks of Gulluk Dagi and the Mecine Canyon with its 600 m high walls along with the typical Mediterranean vegetation sheltering such endangered wild creatures as Mountain Goats, Fallow Deer and Golden Eagle.

Ephesus
Location : Mediterranean Region
Coordinates : 290 53’ East, 360 13’ North
Criteria : a) i, iii, Natural a) ii, iii, Cultural

The Temple of Artemis, which was considered to be one of the Seven Wonders of the World, is situated on the edge of this small town. The city which was situated at the beginning of the Persian Royal Road has survived sufficiently enough to enable us to understand the ancient way of life in Ephesus. It is one of the cities which played an impressive role in the beginnings of Christianity and during the period of its proliferation (St.John Church and the shrine of the Virgin Mary). It contains one of the most spectacular examples of religious architecture of the Seljuk Period.

In 2000 the nomination file of Ephesus was sent to the World Heritage Centre. Since the World Heritage Committee decided that the management plan prepared for the site was insufficient, the nomination file was deferred.

Karain Cave
Location : Mediterranean Region
Coordinates : 300 34’ East, 370 05’ North
Criteria : a) iii, vi Cultural

The cave is situated 30 km. north, north-west of Antalya. It is on the east slope of mount Katran which is in the range of western Taurus Mountains. Carved in Cratese period limestone, its altitude is 430m from the sea level and 150m from the travertine plain. The plain which is formed by transgression is one of the largest travertine plains in the world.

There are fine water springs where the plain meets the mountains. Geological and geomorphological researches in the recent years revealed a lake in the middle of the plain in Pleistocene; and many open air settlements in Paleolithic period. This is proved by the fossils of hippopotamus bones and shells of invertebrate found in the fauna of the Karain cave. The location of the cave is near the strait of Cubuk which is an important passage connecting the Mediterranean region with Inner Anatolia and the Region of Lakes. Karain is a complex of caves rather than a single cave. It consists of many chambers. These chambers are separated by calcite walls and narrow and curve passageways. Stalactites and stalagmites enrich the marvelous appearance of the cave. On the outer surface of the cave there are numerous niches and Greek inscriptions.

The nomination file of Karain Cave was submitted to the World Heritage Center in 2000. Since the Committee decided that nomination criteria described in the file were not sufficient, it was deferred by the Committee.

Mardin Cultural Lanscape
Location : Southeast Anatolia Region
Coordinates : 400 44’ East, 370 19’ North
Criteria : a) ii, iii, iv, Cultural

Mardin is a city in a rocky region in southeastern Anatolia. The city is mainly medieval in origin and is situated on the slopes of a rocky hill, crowned by o fortress built on its citadel.

This barren stoney region around Diyarbaklr and Mardin stretches as for as Sanliurfa and Gaziantep.

The city as a whole with its traditional stone, religious and vernacular architecture and its terraced urban pattern is the best preserved example of Anatolian soil.

Having embodied many civilizations throughout history, Mardin displays very rich architectural, ethnographical, archaeological and historical values.

The nomination file of Mardin Cultural Landscape was submitted to the World Heritage Committee in 2002. Turkish authorities have requested that historic city of Mardin not be examined by the 27th session of World Heritage Committee and therefore, nomination was withdrawn by the Ministry.
Paylaş

İstanbul, Third Capital of Ottoman Empire



Capital Cities of Ottoman

İstanbul, Third Capital of Ottoman Empire

HISTORY OF THE CITY

The first settlement

About 300,000 years ago the first inhabitants of what is now İstanbul made their home in Yarımburgaz Cave on the shores of Küçükçekmece lake. At the end of the last ice age, when the lake formed, human beings continued to inhabit the cave through the Neolithic and Chalcolithic periods. Meanwhile on the Asian coast of İstanbul, excavations near Dudullu have uncovered tools dating from the Lower Palaeolithic age (around 100,000 years ago). And near Ağaçlı north of the city, Middle Palaeolithic and Upper Palaeolithic period tools have been found. There was an important culture at Fikirtepe on the Kurbağılıdere river in Kadıköy around 5000 BC.

Byzantium (660 BC - 324 AD)

Pioneers from the city of Megara on the Greek mainland, where in ü80 BC Dorian incursions had been causing havoc, and other settlers from Miletus on the Anatolian coast of the southern Aegean, established the city of Chalcedon, what is today Kadıköy on istanbul's eastern shore. Another group of Megarans consulted the Oracle of Delphi about the situation of their new city, and the oracle told them to found their city opposite the Land of the Blind. The blind turned out to be the Chalcedonians, who had failed to see the superiority of the site on the opposite side of the Strait of İstanbul. So began the history of Byzantium, which was founded in 660 BC on Sarayburnu ('Palace Headland' as the Turks named it in reference to Topkapı Palace). The Chalcedonians and Byzantines got on amicably, placing both their names on coins that they minted jointly.

Walls were constructed around Byzantium, which stood on a peninsula. There was sea on three sides and abundant fish. The Golden Horn inlet was a sheltered harbour right by the city. There was fertile land for agriculture, and it was conveniently placed on the maritime trade routes. All these factors combined to make Byzantium grow quickly in size and prosperity.

But Byzantium's unsurpassed advantages and wealth also made it a tempting target for invaders. In 269 BC it was captured by the Bithynians and looted. In 202 BC the Macedonian threat obliged Byzantium to seek aid from Rome, and this was the first step towards Rome's own possession of the city.

In 73 AD Byzantium became part of the Roman province of Bithynia-Pontus. The Emperor Vespasian contributed to the city's development. In 193, after Byzantium took sides with the Parthians, the Roman emperor Septimus Sevenrus besieged the city, looted it, and pulled down the walls. Subsequently he had the walls rebuilt, and constructed new buildings and streets. He began construction of the Hippodrome. In 269 the city was attacked by the Goths, who to mark their victory erected a column close to the sea. In 313 the Nicomedians took the city, but did not hold it for long before Emperor Constantine recaptured it.

Capital of the Roman Empire (324 - 395)

The lands of the Roman Empire stretched from the Atlantic in the west to the Euphrates and the Tigris to the east, and early in the fourth century the idea of establishing a second capital to control the eastern provinces had germinated. Byzantium, strategically positioned at the crossroads of the land and sea trade routes between east and west, was the obvious choice. This new status underscored the city's significant cultural and political position in the Old World.

Constantine I the Great (324-337) invited high-born Romans to settle in Byzantium, so swelling the Roman population. At the same time he launched a building programme to befit the city for its new role as eastern capital. The harbours and water supply channels were improved, and construction commenced of a new water distribution system within the city. A new wall was built to improve the city's defences.

The Hippodrome begun by Septimus Sevenıs was completed. This great building, 117 m wide and 480 m long, could seat 100,000 people. Down the centre was the spina, around which the chariots raced. As well as chariot racing, the Hippodrome was used for wild animal fights, athletic competitions, festivals, celebrations and entertainments. It was mainly here that the ordinary people got the chance to see and be with the emperor. The most exciting events of all were the chariot races between four teams, the Blues representing the air, the Whites water, the Greens earth, and the Reds fire. On the walls of the Hippodrome stood numerous statues, most famous of which were the four bronze horses later carried back to Venice by the Latin invaders and installed in St. Mark's Square.

The imperial palace was next to the Hippodrome on the site where Sultanahmet Mosque now stands, and the area where Topkapı Palace was later built was the ancient acropolis with its monumental temples.

Known earlier as Nea Roma, Constantine I named it Constantinople after himself on 11 May 330.

The same year he built the Forum Constantine (now Çemberlitaş Square), and had a bronze statue of himself placed on top of the tall column brought here from the Temple of Apollo in Rome. The 35 m high column was badly damaged at an early date, and iron hoops placed around it in the early 5th century. As a result the Turks referred to it as the Hooped Stone or Çemberlitaş.

Constantine I erected the Milion Stone which was the symbolic hub of all roads fanning out through the Eastern Roman Empire, into Russia, Persia, Egypt and Europe. Just as all roads had earlier led to Rome, they now led to Constantinople, and merchants from myriad countries found their way here from the remotest corners of the world.

When Christianity developed into a religion based on the figure of Christ and his divine mission, the concept of the church arose. Haghia Eirene, the church of the Divine Peace, was one of the oldest Eastern Roman churches, and took its present form when it was enlarged during the reign of Constantine I. Before Ayasofya was constructed this was the patriarchal cathedral. After the Turkish conquest it was used as an armoury by the janissaries, and housed Turkey's first military museum established in the nineteenth century. It stands in the first courtyard of Topkapı Palace.

Ayasofya, the largest and most magnificent of the eastern churches, was first built in 360 by Constantine I. Although the patriarch of Constantinople was the nominal head of the Orthodox Church, all authority lay with the emperor.

The city's infrastructure quickly became inadequate for the city as its population grew, and in 375 the Emperor Valens (364-378) constructed the 1000 m long Valens Aqueduct as part of a new water supply system over the valley west of the Hippodrome. Water from the Belgrade Forest beyond the city was carried over the aqueduct to the centre of the city around the Great Palace.

Several sets of walls were built around the city, beginning with the time of its founder Byzas, and they enclosed areas of differing size. Beyond the outer wall was a moat 10 m deep and 20 m wide, and inside this a second wall with 96 towers. As well as gates used by the general public, there were others reserved for military purposes. The walls overlooking the mouth of the Golden Horn where the city was least vulnerable to attack were the weakest. The next section to the south were the walls along the Marmara Sea which were 8260 m long and pierced by the Ahırkapı, Çatladıkkapı, Samatya and Narlıkapı gates. The land walls were 5632 m long and contained the Belgrad, Silivrikapı, Mevlevihane, Topkapı, Edirnekapı, Eğrikapı and Yedikule gates. Yedikule Gate was also known as Porta Aurea or the Golden Gate, and was the most magnificent, consisting of three archways. It was built by Emperor Theodosius (379-395). Over the gateway was a double headed Byzantine eagle carved in relief. It was through this gate that the emperors passed when returning from victorious campaigns. İstanbul's city walls were almost invincible, and only breached twice in their entire history, once in 1204 by the Fourth Crusaders and once in 1453 by the Turks.

In 390 the Emperor Theodosius I had an obelisk brought from Egypt to İstanbul which he intended to erect as a mark of Roman supremacy. The obelisk dated from 1500 BCduring the reign of Pharaoh Tuthmosis II, and was one of two which stood at the entrance of the Luxor Temple in the city of Teb. The hieroglyphic inscriptions on the obelisk tell of sacrifices made to the god Amon-Ra. The obelisk was placed on the spina in the Hippodrome, on a rectangular marble plinth bearing relief carvings depicting Theodosius watching chariot races in the Hippodrome, and scenes showing how the obelisk was set in place.
Another monument on the spina of the Hippodrome was a bronze statue of three entwined serpents brought from the Temple of Apollo in Delphi. It had been made from the shields of Persian soldiers killed in the Battle of Palatea. Originally there was a gold cauldron resting on the heads of the three serpents, but this was apparently melted down for minting coins during the Latin occupation of the city, along with the bronze plates which covered the third of the ancient monuments on the spina, a stone pillar 32 m in height.

Capital of the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire (395 - 1453)
Upon the death of Theodosius in 395 AD the empire was partitioned into East and West, and Constantinople became capital of the Eastern Roman Empire, subsequently known as the Byzantine Empire. The first Byzantine emperor was Arcadius (395-408). The short reign of Arcadius was followed by the long one of Theodosius II (408-450), who in 439 constructed new additions to the three sets of walls, closing up all weak points in the land and sea walls.
The first synagogue built in İstanbul was located in the district of Bakırcılar, and was converted into a church by Theodosius II in 450. In the sixteenth century there were over thirty synagogues in İstanbul.

The great cistern built in the sixth century by Justinian I (527-565) to supply the palace with water became known as the Basilica Cistern because the commercial basilica stood on top of it. Two of the 336 columns in the cistern stand upon carved heads of Medusa taken from earlier buildings.

Ayasofya had been burned down twice during insurrections and was rebuilt by Justinian in 537. Various stories about the church were current among the people of İstanbul. One of these related that during mass one day the Emperor Justinian dropped the holy bread in his hand. Before he could bend down to pick it up, a bee seized the bread and and flew off with it. The emperor sent messengers to bee keepers throughout the empire telling them to look out for this bread in their hives, and offering a reward for whoever found it. A few days later a bee keeper came to the capital with an unusually shaped honey comb thought to have resulted from the effects of the holy bread. Justinian decided to construct a şplendid church on the same plan as the honey comb. Anthemius of Tralles and Isidor of Miletus were appointed architects of the church, which rose up in its full splendour. The church was renovated and restored on numerous occasions over the next fourteen centuries, the last major changes being carried out by the Swiss Fossati brothers at the request of Sultan Abdülmecid in 1847-1849.

Another Byzantine Church, the Chora, contains what are thought by many to be the most spectacular examples of Byzantine frescos and mosaics depicting biblical scenes. This church took its present form in the fourteenth century; and was converted into a mosque by Sultan Bayezid II (1481-1512).

Byzantine Constantinople never recovered from the destruction and plunder of the Fourth Crusaders, who occupied the city and established a Latin Empire there. The Byzantine Empire regained control of Constantinople in 1261, but even an ambitious building programme could not restore the city to its former splendour and prosperity. The population, which had once been 500,000, steadily declined to 50,000. Production levels diminished and famine broke out. A thousand year-old chapter of history was drawing to an end, and the city was on the brink of a new era as the Ottoman Turks gradually advanced through Asia Minor and the Balkan peninsula.

THE OTTOMANS

The Ottomans first laid siege to İstanbul in 1391. The siege dragged on for years, and in 1396 Bayezid I (1389-1403) constructed a fortress on the Asian shore of the Strait of İstanbul to prevent aid getting through to the besieged city from the Black Sea.

Sixty years later Mehmed II (1451-1481) besieged İstanbul again. He built a second fortress, Rumeli Hisarı, on the other side of the Strait of İstanbul facing that built by his grandfather Bayezid I, so exerting an even tighter stranglehold on the city. The fortress, which was completed in the brief time of four months, had an irregular plan following the contours of the hilly site. The three great towers were named after three of Mehmed II's vezirs, Halil Paşa, Zağanos Paşa and Sarıca Paşa.

Mehmed II had artisans brought from Europe to cast great cannon powerful enough to demolish the Byzantine walls. When everything was ready at the beginning of March 1453, the Ottoman armies gathered outside the city walls. The siege had begun. On 4 April Turkish cannon began to bombard the walls along the Marmara Sea. The Golden Horn was, as the Byzantines thought, impenetrable thanks to the great chain stretched across the mouth of the waterway to prevent vessels entering. They had not reckoned with Mehmed II's decision to drag fifty of his galleys on wooden runners over the hilly ridge of land between Dolmabahçe on the Strait of İstanbul and Kasımpaşa on the Golden Horn. This nasty surprise undermined what remained of Byzantine morale.

Capital of the Ottoman Empire (1453 - 1923)

İstanbul will without fail be conquered What an excellent commander is he who will take it,And what excellent soldiers will his soldiers be.Hadith(I'raditions of the Prophet)

In the attack launched on the morning of 29 May the land walls were breached at Topkapı (not the palace of that name but a city gate several kilometres to the west). The same day Mehmed II entered the city on horseback and performed his prayers in the church of Ayasofya. In accordance with Ottoman tradition the city's cathedral was converted into a mosque. The church of the Holy Apostles and numerous others remained as churches for the time being. Thereafter Mehmed II was known as Fatih, or the Conqueror.

The Byzantine Great Palace which had stood between Ayasofya and the Hippodrome had been looted and razed during the Latin occupation. With the restoration of the Byzantine rulers in 1261, they used the Palace of Blakhernai situated inside the land walls where they descended to join the sea walls along the Golden Horn. Immediately after the conquest Mehmed II had a fortress and palace built in the area which was to become known as Beyazıt west of Ayasofya. A large bazaar was constructed beneath the walls of the fortress.

The once splendid city was falling into ruin when it was taken by the Turks, who set about repairing the old buildings and city walls. Others beyond repair provided foundations on which new Ottoman buildings were constructed. The huge underground water cisterns were also repaired.
Those who had fled the city began to return, while new settlers of diverse ethnic origin and faith arrived from all over the Ottoman Empire, creating a colourful cultural mosaic.

Acquiring an Ottoman architectural identity

Gradually the city developed its distinctly Ottoman identity. Mosques founded by the sultans and members of their families were distinguished by having more than one minaret, and were known as selatin, the plural form of sultan. İstanbul's first selatin mosque was that built by Mehmed II, with its symmetrically arranged complex of colleges (medrese), hospice (tabhane),hospital (darüşşifa),shops, and baths (hamam).Its architect was Atik Sinan ('Old' Sinan to distinguish him from the later and more celebrated Sinan). Over the next few centuries sultans, other members of the dynasty, and statesmen founded mosques in their names, and around them various institutions. Small mosques with modest complexes built by statesmen were known as vezir camior vezir mosques.

When the Umayyads had besieged İstanbul in the year 668 Eyyub el-Ensari, standard bearer to the Prophet Muhammed, had died in the fighting. In 1459 Mehmed II had Eyüp Sultan Mosque built in his memory, together with a complex consisting of medrese, imaret(public kitchen) and hamam. It was in this mosque that the Ottoman sultans girded their sword of office upon acceding to the throne.

Construction of Topkapı Palace began in 1472 and was completed in, 1478, although successive sultans added new buildings to the complex over the centuries. The outer entrance which led into the first court, the Alay Meydanı (Parade Square), was the Imperial Gate or Bab-ı Hümayun. At the farther end of the first court was the main entrance gate called Babüsselam (Gate of Greeting), which led into the second court, the Divan Meydanı. Here were the palace hospital, bakery and arsenal buildings, the royal mews along the left side and the kitchen buildings along the right.

The gate leading from the second to the third court was the Babüssaade (Gate of Felicity), and in the third court was the Arz Odası or Throne Room where foreign ambassadors and statesmen were granted audience. The buildings behind here date from the eighteenth century and were occupied by the pages and men of the Enderun who served in the private household of the sultan. The Has Oda or Hall of the Privy Chamber, occupied by the officials who served the sultan in person, stands on the west side of the court next to the Pavilion of the Holy Mantle containing relics of the Prophet Muhammed and the first caliphs. In the fourth court are several lovely köşks(pavilions) built by different sultans. These are the Bağdat, Revan, Sofa and Mecidiye köşks.

Topkapı Palace was both home to the Ottoman sultans and centre of government for four hundred years, and over this time the palace was in a constant state of fluctuation, with additions and alterations carried out by various sultans.

Sultan Bayezid II (1481-1512), the son of Mehmed II, built a mosque complex in his name between 1500 and 1505. Located in a central position west of the Hippodrome, it was almost certainly the work of two architects, Kemaleddin and Hayreddin. The complex is an important link in the history of Turkish architecture, in terms of its relationship to its site, its architectural composition, decoration, and the institutions housed in the secondary buildings. As well as the mosque itself, there was a türbeor mausoleum for Sultan Bayezid, an imaret, children's school, hospices, medrese, hamam, and kervansaray. The mosque had a square prayer hall covered by a large dome supported on either side by two semidomes. The arches of the colonnades around the court were of white and red marble. Exquisite stone carving decorated the mihrapniche, minber(pulpit), müezzin’s gallery, and the women's gallery, while the woodwork decoration of the doors and windows was the finest of its period.

On his return from the Egyptian Campaign in 1517, Selim I (1512-1520) brought back the Islamic holy relics and took the title of caliph. From that point on

İstanbul became the centre of Islam.

During the reign of Sultan Süleyman the Magnificent (1520-1566), Mimar Sinan built the Şehzade Mosque in memory of Süleyman's son Mehmed, overlooking both the Golden Horn and the Marmara Sea. This was the fırst royal mosque built by Sinan, and the one which he was to refer to later in life as 'the work of my apprenticeship'. The complex consisted of mosque, medrese, hospice, stables, school, imaret and the tomb of Şehzade Mehmed.

Selim's royal mosque complex, which was completed posthumously in 1522, consisted of his türbe, and an imaret, medrese and hospital.

From this point on the new Ottoman capital began to find its own identity through buildings constructed by Mimar Sinan. In 1548 he built Mihrimah Sultan Mosque for Mihrimah Sultan, the daughter of Süleyman the Magnificent, in Üsküdar. It was surrounded by a complex consisting of medrese, guest house, stables, food store, warehouse and han. The two great pillars inside this mosque were in the shape of four-leafed clover.

Süleymaniye Mosque, which Sinan referred to as his `journeyman's piece', was constructed in 1557. The genius of Sinan's architecture seemed to symbolise the power of Süleyman. The composition of the great domed inner space illustrates the culmination of Ottoman mosque design. In order to draw off the smoke from the burning lamps and candles, and keep the air fresh when the mosque was full of people, he created a ventilation system whereby the air circulated through a chamber over the main entrance. Moreover the particles of carbon in the smoke were deposited in this chamber and scraped off for making the lamp black ink used by calligraphers.

The Atik Valide Mosque was constructed between 1570 and 1579 for Nurbanu Valide Sultan, the mother of Murat III (1574-1595). Again the mosque and its complex were designed by Sinan, and consisted of mosque, medrese, tekke (dervish lodge), children's school, darülhadis(school for teaching the hadith), darülkurra (school for teaching the Koran), imaret, hospital and hamam. The courtyard encircling the mosque to the north, east and west, contained a şadırvan(fountain for ablutions) and gave access to the mosque through four doors. The finest of the tiling decoration are two exquisite panels on either side of the mihrap niche. The wooden doors and window shutters are inlaid with mother-of pearl and ivory.

Şemsi Paşa Mosque on the water's edge in Üsküdar was built by Sinan for Şemsi Ahmed Paşa in 1580. This is the smallest of the mosque complexes built by Mimar Sinan. It is in classical Ottoman style, and consists of the founder's türbe and a medrese as well as the tiny mosque.

Sultanahmet Mosque was built at the southern end of the ancient Hippodrome between 1609 and 1616 for Sultan Ahmed I (1603-1617). Its architect was Sedefkar Mehmed Ağa. On the eastern side of the mosque was an arasta, or market of shops to provide income for the upkeep of the mosque, and to the north a hünkâr kasır, or suite of private rooms for the sultan's use prior to and following prayers. The mosque was celebrated not so much for its architecture as for its exquisite İznik tiles of the last great period.

The Galata Tower built in 1349 was part of the defences of the old Genoese city facing İstanbul proper across the mouth of the Golden Horn. Its original name was the Christ Tower. During Ottoman times it was used first as a prison and later as a fire tower. In the seventeenth century, during the reign of Murad N (1623-1640), a scientist by the name of Hezarfen Ahmed Çelebi Iaunched himself off the top of the tower wearing wings which he had made for himself, and successfully completed the flight across the Strait of İstanbul to Üsküdar.

In 1660, during the reign of Mehmed IV. (1649-1687), the Mısır Çarşısı (Egyptian Bazaar) was built, and between 1661 and 1663 the half-finished Yeni (New) Mosque was completed by Hatice Sultan. This mosque had been begun in 1597 by Safiye Sultan, the mother of Mehmed III. After the death of Davud Ağa, the original architect, Mimar Dalgıç Ahmed Ağa continued with the construction until 1603. With the accession of Ahmed I the project was left unfinished, and meanwhile Ahmed I began construction of his own mosque in Sultanahmet.

The magnificent baroque fountain of Sultan Ahmet III (1703-1730) which has a fountain in each of its four walls and a sebil where cups of water were distributed to passersby at each corner, was built outside the main gate of Topkapı Palace.

The ancient Hippodrome, known in Turkish as Atmeydanı, was used for playing the equestrian game of cirit (jereed) and for public celebrations of the circumcision of royal princes. One of the monuments on the spina of the Hippodrome was a stone column originally sheathed in bronze, but this was melted down to mint coins by the Fourth Crusaders after they occupied İstanbul in the thirteenth century and set up a Latin empire which lasted until the middle of the century. During the Turkish period climbing this bare column was regarded as an acrobatic feat, as recorded by eyewitnesses and contemporary miniatures.

In 1755 Mahmud I (1730-1754) built the Nuruosmaniye Mosque at one of the entrances to the Covered Bazaar. With its polygonal projecting mihrap and western stylistic influences, this mosque was very different from its predecessors. Its complex consisted of an imaret, medrese, library, türbe, sebil, fountain and shops.

In 1763 Mustafa III (1757-1774) built his royal mosque in Laleli, with its complex of imaret, fountain, sebil, türbe, han, medrese, muvakkithane(horologe room), houses for the imam and müezzin, and shops. Its architect is thought to be Hacı Mehmed Ağa.
Dersaadet of the Ottomans

In the nineteenth century İstanbul's population consisted of Muslim Turks, Orthodox Greeks, Gregorian and Catholic Armenians, Jews, Levantines and colonies of foreign merchants.

This century was a time of modernisation and reform for the Ottoman Empire, and naturally the capital city was at the forefront of these changes. In the process of westernisation in the military, economic and social fields foreign experts from Europe were appointed to important posts, particularly in the army, which had German, Swedish, British and French paşas in its ranks. The sultans adopted the dress of their western counterparts, rejecting kaftans and şalvarin favour of trousers and jackets, and replacing the turban with the fez. In the cultural field, western style painting, architecture and music became popular.

The reign of Mahmud II (1808-1839) marked the first most important phase of these changes. In 1824 the empire's first newspaper, Smyrnéen, went into publication in İzmir. Convinced that the tradition-bound Janissary Corps was no longer capable of defending the empire, Mahmud II laid plans to found a new modern army, resolving to pick 150 of the ablest soldiers from each of the 51 janissary regiments in İstanbul for this puıpose. When the news got out it sparked off a janissary revolt on the night of 4 June 1826. The janissaries rampaged through the city looting, but when they found that they had no popular support from citizens who backed the sultan's plans, they retreated to their barracks. The sultan's own forces surrounded the barracks and bombarded them, killing all those inside and then set fire to the building. Thus, after 465 years, the Janissary Corps was dissolved on 15 June 1826. Sultan Mahmud II set about founding his new army.

Mahmud II's own royal mosque, the Nusretiye, was built by Kirkor Amira Balyan for the sultan in 1826. The şadırvan in the stone courtyard has twelve taps and a conical roof resting on twelve slender columns.

The first steam driven vessels began to replace sailing ships around this time. Meanwhile, fires continued to ravage the city at frequent intervals, since almost all the houses were made of wood. In 1828 the Balyan family of architects built the 50 m high Beyazıt fire tower.

The first bridge connecting the walled city of İstanbul to Galata on the other side of the Golden Horn was constructed in 1836. It was a pontoon bridge designed by Admiral of the Fleet Ahmet Fevzi. Since no toll was charged to cross it, it was known as the Hayratiye (Charity Bridge).

Mahmud II was the first Ottoman sultan to have his portrait hung in government offices. He also had a decoration inaugurated bearing miniature poıtraits of himself, known as Tasvir-i Hümayun (Imperial Portrait), which he presented to his most loyal state officers, hanging the decoration around their necks himself. Conservative factions began to stir up public opposition on the grounds that portraiture contravened religious doctrine, and following the death of Sultan Mahmud in 1839, his portraits in government buildings were covered over by curtains. But gradually people became used to the idea, as they were to become used, to photographs. Mahmud II's son Sultan Abdülmecid (1839-1861) proclaimed a series of reforms known as the Tanzimat Ferman or Gülhane Hatt-ı Hümayun almost immediately after his accession to the throne. The reforms had been drawn up by Mustafa Reşid Paşa and were proclaimed by the latter in Gülhane Gardens behind Topkapı Palace on 3 November 1839.

In 1847 the first demonstration in the Ottoman Empire of the newly invented telegraph was conducted at the large wooden palace of Beylerbeyi in the presence of Sultan Abdülmecid, who himself sent the first message over the line. He then ordered that a telegraph line be set up between İstanbul and Edirne.

In 1850 Şirket-i Hayriye, İstanbul Maritime Lines, was established and began to organise regular steam ferry services across the Strait of İstanbul and to the Islands.

In 1851 Sultan Abdülmecid had the Empire style Hırka-i Şerif Mosque (Mosque of the Holy Mantle) constructed in Fatih. Here the mantle presented by the Prophet Muhammed to Veysel Karani was to be kept and visited during the month of Ramazan.

Another member of the Balyan family of architects, Nikoğos, built the neo-baroque Ortaköy Mosque on the European shore of the İstanbul Strait in 1853. The same year the Ottoman Empire and its allies France and Britain began fighting Russia in the Crimean War.

Topkapı Palace, which had been both the sultan's private residence and seat of government since the fifteenth century, lost this status in 1853 when the court moved to the new palace of Dolmabahçe. This palace, designed by the Balyan family of court architects, was in an eclectic style heavily influenced by contemporary western architecture.

Two years later Dolmabahçe Mosque, one of the last examples of Empire style in İstanbul, was designed by Garabet Balyan. Its founder was Bezmialem Valide Sultan, the mother of Abdülmecid, who completed its construction after his mother's death.

Around the same time the small summer palace of Küçüksu designed by Nikoğos Balyan, chief architect to Abdülmecid, was constructed on the Asian shore of the İstanbul Strait in the area known to Europeans as the Sweet Waters of Asia.

The nineteenth century saw a rush of new inventions and an expansion of world trade, and from the middle of the nineteenth century onwards the fashion for trade and industrial exhibitions began. Here goods from all over the world and the latest inventions were displayed to the public. The first Ottoman trade fair was held in Sultanahmet in 1863 during the reign of Sultan Abdülaziz (1861-1876). The exhibits ranged from commodities like Turkish coffee and silk production, to the fine arts, including architectural models. The first two days of each week the exhibition was opened to women only. The same year Sultan Abdülaziz visited Cairo.

In 1865 the architect Sarkis Balyan built the new Beylerbeyi Palace in place of the old wooden palace on the Asian shore of the Strait of İstanbul.

On 21 June 1867 Sultan Abdülaziz became the first Ottoman sultan to pay a state visit abroad. He travelled by the royal yacht, the Sultaniye,to Toulon, from where he took the train to Paris, and then travelled to England. He returned by land via Belgium, Coblenz, Prussia, Vienna and Budapest, aı-riving back in İstanbul on 7 August.

In 1847 the first demonstration in the Ottoman Empire of the newly invented telegraph was conducted at the large wooden palace of Beylerbeyi in the presence of Sultan Abdülmecid, who himself sent the first message over the line. He then ordered that a telegraph line be set up between İstanbul and Edirne.

In 1850 Şirket-i Hayriye, İstanbul Maritime Lines, was established and began to organise regular steam ferry services across the Strait of İstanbul and to the Islands.
In 1851 Sultan Abdülmecid had the Empire style Hırka-i Şerif Mosque (Mosque of the Holy Mantle) constructed in Fatih. Here the mantle presented by the Prophet Muhammed to Veysel Karani was to be kept and visited during the month of Ramazan.

Another member of the Balyan family of architects, Nikoğos, built the neo-baroque Ortaköy Mosque on the European shore of the Bosphon in 1853. The same year the Ottoman Empire and its allies France and Britain began fighting Russia in the Crimean War.

Topkapı Palace, which had been both the sultan's private residence and seat of government since the fifteenth century, lost this status in 1853 when the court moved to the new palace of Dolmabahçe. This palace, designed by the Balyan family of court architects, was in an eclectic style heavily influenced by contemporary western architecture.

Two years later Dolmabahçe Mosque, one of the last examples of Empire style in İstanbul, was designed by Garabet Balyan. Its founder was Bezmialem Valide Sultan, the mother of Abdülmecid, who completed its construction after his mother's death.

Around the same time the small summer palace of Küçüksu designed by Nikoğos Balyan, chief architect to Abdülmecid, was constructed on the Asian shore of the Bosphon in the area known to Europeans as the Sweet Waters of Asia.

The nineteenth century saw a rush of new inventions and an expansion of world trade, and from the middle of the nineteenth century onwards the fashion for trade and industrial exhibitions began. Here goods from all over the world and the latest inventions were displayed to the public. The first Ottoman trade fair was held in Sultanahmet in 1863 during the reign of Sultan Abdülaziz (1861-1876). The exhibits ranged from commodities like Turkish coffee and silk production, to the fine arts, including architectural models. The first two days of each week the exhibition was opened to women only. The same year Sultan Abdülaziz visited Cairo.

In 1865 the architect Sarkis Balyan built the new Beylerbeyi Palace in place of the old wooden palace on the Asian shore of the Strait of İstanbul.

On 21 June 1867 Sultan Abdülaziz became the first Ottoman sultan to pay a state visit abroad. He travelled by the royal yacht, the Sultaniye, to Toulon, from where he took the train to Paris, and then travelled to England. He returned by land via Belgium, Coblenz, Prussia, Vienna and Budapest, arriving back in İstanbul on 7 August.

In 1871 Çırağan Palace was built by Sarkis and Agop Balyan according to a design by Nikoğos Balyan. A royal hunting lodge was then built at Ayazağa in Maslak, and the Valide Mosque founded by Pertevniyal Valide Sultan, mother of Sultan Abdülaziz in Aksaray, which had been commenced in 1869 but left unfinished, was completed in 1871. This mosque complex, consisting of school, türbe, muvakkithane and sebil, was designed and built by Sarkis Balyan. The diverse and ornate decoration on the façades distinguish it from other nineteenth century mosques, as do the neo-Gothic features of the interior.

Horse-drawn trams and the short underground funicular railway which carried passengers up and down the steep hill between the commercial district of Karaköy on the shore and the residential district of Pera introduced alternative means of transport in İstanbul.

In 23 December 1876, the year of his accession, Abdülhamid II (1876-1909) proclaimed the First Constitutional Government. For a brief time the Ottoman Empire was ruled by a constitutional monarchy, but three months later the sultan dissolved Parliament and repealed the constitution. The Academy of Fine Arts (Sanayi-i Nefise Mektebi) was founded, primarily due to the efforts of Osman Hamdi Bey, who was also instrumental in the founding of the Archaeological Museum, later housed in a building designed by Vallaury.

Sultan Abdülhamid II appointed photographers to document events, buildings and sights around the empire, and was the principal patron of photography in Ottoman Turkey. He sent albums of photographs to fellow heads of state around the world, as a means of illustrating the progress and achievements of his empire.

The area northwest of Beşiktaş had been forest in Byzantine times, and was a hunting ground for Sultan Süleyman the Magnificent and his successors. When the waterfront palaces were constructed there, the woodland was preserved as a park belonging to the palace grounds. Early in the nineteenth century Sultan Selim III had a country house constructed in this woodland for his mother Mihrişah Valide Sultan and in 1834 Sultan Mahmud II had another country house known as Yıldız built here. In 1842 Sultan Abdülmecid had a third house built here for his mother Bezmialem Valide Sultan. The area became known as Yıldız, and the small complex of royal summer residences here grew into a full-scale palace with the accession of Sultan Abdülhamid II in 1876. He constructed new state apartments, the Şale Kasır (so named because its architecture was inspired by the chalets of Switzerland), and the köşks (pavilions or country houses) of Malta and Çadır designed by Sarkis and Agop Balyan. The Italian architect Raimondo d'Aronco designed the Winter Gardens and conservatories, the guard pavilion, the Harem Köşk, the Aides Köşk, the stable building, theatre, and exhibition building. In 1896 the terraced stone houses on Akaretler Hill were constructed to house palace officials.

The Second Constitution was proclaimed on 23 July 1908, and in 1909, the year that Haydarpaşa Railway Station was opened, Abdülhamid II was deposed by the Young Turks.
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